Biotechnosium...

Victorian stem cell scientists from Monash University have modified a human embryonic stem cell (hESC) line to glow red when the stem cells become red blood cells.
The modified hESC line, ErythRED, represents a major step forward to the eventual aim of generating mature, fully functional red blood cells from human embryonic stem cells.
The research, conducted by a team led by Professors Andrew Elefanty and Ed Stanley at the Monash Immunology and Stem Cell Laboratories that included scientists at the Murdoch Children's Research Institute, was published in today's issue of the prestigious journal, Nature Methods.
The work, funded by the Australian Stem Cell Centre (ASCC), will help scientists to track the differentiation of embryonic stem cells into red blood cells.

Stem cells have a unique ability: when they divide, they can either give rise to more stem cells, or to a variety of specialised cell types. In both mice and humans, a layer of cells at the base of the skin contains stem cells that can develop into the specialised cells in the layers above. Scientists at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) in Monterotondo, in collaboration with colleagues at the Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnologicas (CIEMAT) in Madrid, have discovered two proteins that control when and how these stem cells switch to being skin cells. The findings, published online today in Nature Cell Biology, shed light on the basic mechanisms involved not only in formation of skin, but also on skin cancer and other epithelial cancers
At some point in their lives, the stem cells at the base of the skin stop proliferating and start differentiating into the cells that form the skin itself. To do so, they must turn off the 'stem cell programme' in their genes and turn on the 'skin cell programme'. Researchers suspected that a family of proteins called C/EBPs might be involved in this process, as they were known to regulate it in other types of stem cell, but had so far failed to identify which C/EBP protein controlled the switch in skin. Claus Nerlov and his group at EMBL Monterotondo discovered it was not one protein, but two: C/EBPα and C/EBPβ
The EMBL researchers used genetic engineering techniques to delete the genes that encode C/EBPα and β specifically in the skin of mouse embryos, and found that without these proteins the skin of the mice did not form properly

DNA

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).

The information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people. The order, or sequence, of these bases determines the information available for building and maintaining an organism, similar to the way in which letters of the alphabet appear in a certain order to form words and sentences.

DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs. Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. Together, a base, sugar, and phosphate are called a nucleotide. Nucleotides are arranged in two long strands that form a spiral called a double helix. The structure of the double helix is somewhat like a ladder, with the base pairs forming the ladder’s rungs and the sugar and phosphate molecules forming the vertical sidepieces of the ladder.

An important property of DNA is that it can replicate, or make copies of itself. Each strand of DNA in the double helix can serve as a pattern for duplicating the sequence of bases. This is critical when cells divide because each new cell needs to have an exact copy of the DNA present in the old cell.


DNA is a double helix formed by base pairs attached to a sugar-phosphate backbone.

DNA Sequencing

DNA sequencing encompasses biochemical methods for determining the order of the nucleotide bases, adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine, in a DNA oligonucleotide. The sequence of DNA constitutes the heritable genetic information in nuclei, plasmids, mitochondria, and chloroplasts that forms the basis for the developmental programs of all living organisms. Determining the DNA sequence is therefore useful in basic research studying fundamental biological processes, as well as in applied fields such as diagnostic or forensic research. The advent of DNA sequencing has significantly accelerated biological research and discovery. The rapid speed of sequencing attainable with modern DNA sequencing technology has been instrumental in the large-scale sequencing of the human genome, in the Human Genome Project. Related projects, often by scientific collaboration across continents, have generated the complete DNA sequences of many animal, plant, and microbial genomes.




Maxam-Gilbert sequencing


In 1976-1977, Allan Maxam and Walter Gilbert developed a DNA sequencing method based on chemical modification of DNA and subsequent cleavage at specific bases . Although Maxam and Gilbert published their chemical sequencing method two years after the ground-breaking paper of Sanger and Coulson on plus-minus sequencing, Maxam-Gilbert sequencing rapidly became more popular, since purified DNA could be used directly, while the initial Sanger method required that each read start be cloned for production of single-stranded DNA. However, with the development and improvement of the chain-termination method (see below), Maxam-Gilbert sequencing has fallen out of favour due to its technical complexity, extensive use of hazardous chemicals, and difficulties with scale-up. In addition, unlike the chain-termination method, chemicals used in the Maxam-Gilbert method cannot easily be customized for use in a standard molecular biology kit.

In brief, the method requires radioactive labelling at one end and purification of the DNA fragment to be sequenced. Chemical treatment generates breaks at a small proportion of one or two of the four nucleotide bases in each of four reactions (G, A+G, C, C+T). Thus a series of labelled fragments is generated, from the radiolabelled end to the first 'cut' site in each molecule. The fragments are then size-separated by gel electrophoresis, with the four reactions arranged side by side. To visualize the fragments generated in each reaction, the gel is exposed to X-ray film for autoradiography, yielding an image of a series of dark 'bands' corresponding to the radiolabelled DNA fragments, from which the sequence may be inferred.

Also sometimes known as 'chemical sequencing', this method originated in the study of DNA-protein interactions (footprinting), nucleic acid structure and epigenetic modifications to DNA, and within these it still has important applications.

Chain-termination methods


While the chemical sequencing method of Maxam and Gilbert, and the plus-minus method of Sanger and Coulson were orders of magnitude faster than previous methods, the chain-terminator method developed by Sanger was even more efficient, and rapidly became the method of choice. The Maxam-Gilbert technique requires the use of highly toxic chemicals, and large amounts of radiolabeled DNA, whereas the chain-terminator method uses fewer toxic chemicals and lower amounts of radioactivity. The key principle of the Sanger method was the use of dideoxynucleotides triphosphates (ddNTPs) as DNA chain terminators.

The classical chain-termination or Sanger method requires a single-stranded DNA template, a DNA primer, a DNA polymerase, radioactively or fluorescently labeled nucleotides, and modified nucleotides that terminate DNA strand elongation. The DNA sample is divided into four separate sequencing reactions, containing the four standard deoxynucleotides (dATP, dGTP, dCTP and dTTP) and the DNA polymerase. To each reaction is added only one of the four dideoxynucleotides (ddATP, ddGTP, ddCTP, or ddTTP). These dideoxynucleotides are the chain-terminating nucleotides, lacking a 3'-OH group required for the formation of a phosphodiester bond between two nucleotides during DNA strand elongation. Incorporation of a dideoxynucleotide into the nascent (elongating) DNA strand therefore terminates DNA strand extension, resulting in various DNA fragments of varying length. The dideoxynucleotides are added at lower concentration than the standard deoxynucleotides to allow strand elongation sufficient for sequence analysis.

The newly synthesized and labeled DNA fragments are heat denatured, and separated by size (with a resolution of just one nucleotide) by gel electrophoresis on a denaturing polyacrylamide-urea gel. Each of the four DNA synthesis reactions is run in one of four individual lanes (lanes A, T, G, C); the DNA bands are then visualized by autoradiography or UV light, and the DNA sequence can be directly read off the X-ray film or gel image. In the image on the right, X-ray film was exposed to the gel, and the dark bands correspond to DNA fragments of different lengths. A dark band in a lane indicates a DNA fragment that is the result of chain termination after incorporation of a dideoxynucleotide (ddATP, ddGTP, ddCTP, or ddTTP). The terminal nucleotide base can be identified according to which dideoxynucleotide was added in the reaction giving that band. The relative positions of the different bands among the four lanes are then used to read (from bottom to top) the DNA sequence as indicated.



There are some technical variations of chain-termination sequencing. In one method, the DNA fragments are tagged with nucleotides containing radioactive phosphorus for radiolabelling. Alternatively, a primer labeled at the 5’ end with a fluorescent dye is used for the tagging. Four separate reactions are still required, but DNA fragments with dye labels can be read using an optical system, facilitating faster and more economical analysis and automation. This approach is known as 'dye-primer sequencing'. The later development by L Hood and coworkers] of fluorescently labeled ddNTPs and primers set the stage for automated, high-throughput DNA sequencing.



The different chain-termination methods have greatly simplified the amount of work and planning needed for DNA sequencing. For example, the chain-termination-based "Sequenase" kit from USB Biochemicals contains most of the reagents needed for sequencing, prealiquoted and ready to use. Some sequencing problems can occur with the Sanger Method, such as non-specific binding of the primer to the DNA, affecting accurate read out of the DNA sequence. In addition, secondary structures within the DNA template, or contaminating RNA randomly priming at the DNA template can also affect the fidelity of the obtained sequence. Other contaminants affecting the reaction may consist of extraneous DNA or inhibitors of the DNA polymerase.

Dye-terminator sequencing




An alternative to primer labelling is labelling of the chain terminators, a method commonly called 'dye-terminator sequencing'. The major advantage of this method is that the sequencing can be performed in a single reaction, rather than four reactions as in the labelled-primer method. In dye-terminator sequencing, each of the four dideoxynucleotide chain terminators is labelled with a different fluorescent dye, each fluorescing at a different wavelength. This method is attractive because of its greater expediency and speed and is now the mainstay in automated sequencing with computer-controlled sequence analyzers (see below). Its potential limitations include dye effects due to differences in the incorporation of the dye-labelled chain terminators into the DNA fragment, resulting in unequal peak heights and shapes in the electronic DNA sequence trace chromatogram after capillary electrophoresis (see figure to the right). This problem has largely been overcome with the introduction of new DNA polymerase enzyme systems and dyes that minimize incorporation variability, as well as methods for eliminating "dye blobs", caused by certain chemical characteristics of the dyes that can result in artifacts in DNA sequence traces. The dye-terminator sequencing method, along with automated high-throughput DNA sequence analyzers, is now being used for the vast majority of sequencing projects, as it is both easier to perform and lower in cost than most previous sequencing methods.

Links for people interested in DNA-related software and bioinformatics:

Art Roberts's informative web site on biotechnology

The IUBio Archive for Biology data and software

The BioCatalog at EBI

Genamics (MolBiol software database)

UK HGMP Resource Centre (bioinfo services after registration)

TIGR software tools for genomics

STADEN package - PreGAP4 and GAP4 for Contig (pre)assembly

Some things on/for ACeDB

EST-related links and software/web tools

A QTL-analysis software package

Following is the list of Colleges offering B.Pharmacy degree in Andhra Pradesh. I have here provide the addresses along with the number of seats available in the respective colleges.

All the below colleges have 60 seats. When there is a variation its(no of seats) mentioned

Hyderabad District:

1. Anwar-Ui-Uloom College of Pharmacy; New Mallepally, Hyderabad. (60 seats)
2. Deccon college of Pahrmacy; Kanchanbagh, Zafargarh (P), Hyderabad. (40 seats)
3. Gokaraju Rangaraju College of Pharmacy; Bachupally, Kukatpally, Hyderabad (60 seats)
4. G.Pulla Reddy College of Pharmacy; Mehdipatnam, Hyderabad. (60 seats)
5. M.E.S.C.O. Collegte of Pharmacy; Mustaidipura, Karwan Road, Hyderabad-500006 (30 seats)
6. RBVRR Women's College of Pharmacy; BarkatPur, Hyderabad. (60 seats)
7. RGR Siddanti College of Pharmacy; 703, Bolton Road, Opp. Tiwil Gardens, Behind Parade Grounds, Near JBs, Secunderabad. (60 seats).
8. Shadan College of Pharmacy; Peerancheru, Near Kali Temple, Himayat sagar road, Hyderabad. (60 seats)
9. Shadan Women's College of Pharmacy; Rajbhavan Road, Kairatabad, Hyderabad. (60 seats)
10. Sarojini Naidu Vanitha Pharmacy Maha Vidyalaya; Mukarramjahi road, Nampally, Hyderabad. (60 seats)
11. Sri Ventkateshwara College of Pharmacy; Hi-Tech city road, Vittalrao nagar, Madhapur, Hyderabad. (60 seats).
12. Sultan-Ui-Uloom College of Pharmacy; Road No:3, Banjara hills, Mount Pleasant, Hyderabad. (60 seats)
13. Teegala Ram Reddy College of Pharmacy; Sarror nagar, Meerpet, Hyderabad. (60 seats)

1. Azad College of Pharmacy; Moinabad, Rangareddy District. (60 seats)
2. Bharat College of Pharmacy; Mangalpally(Vil), Ibrahimp[atnam, R.R district. (60 seats)
3. CMR College of Pharmacy; Kandlakoya (V), Medchal Road, R.R.District. (60 seats)
4. Gurunanak Institute of Pharmacy; Ibrahim patnam, R.R.Dist. (60 seats)
5. Holy Mary Institute of Technology and Science College of Pharmacy; Bogaram(V), Keesara(M), R.R Dist. (60 seats)
6. J.J. College of Pharmacy; Maheshwaram, R.R.Dist. (60 seats)
7. Lalitha College of Pharmacy; Venkatapur(V), Ghatkesar (M), R.R.Dist. (60 seats)
8. Malla Reddy College of Pharmacy; Dhulapally Post, Via Hakimpet, Secunderabad, R.R.Dist. (60 seats)
9. Malla Reddy Institute of Pharmacy Sciences; Mysammaguda, Dhulapally Post, Via Hakimpet, Secunderabad, R.R.Dist. (60 seats)
10. Mother Theresa College of Pharmacy; NFC Nagar, Ghateskar (M), R.R Dist. (60 seats)
11. Priya Darshini College of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Narapally Main Road, Chowdaryguda (V), Ghatkesar(M), R.R.Dist. (60 seats)
12. Sree Datha Institute of Pharmacy; Sheriguda(V), Ibrahimpatnam(M), R.R.Dist. (60 seats)
13. Sri Indhu Institute of Pharmacy; Sheriguda(V), Ibrahimpatnam(M), R.R.Dist. (60 seats)
14. Samskruti College of Pharmacy; Kondapur, Ghatkesar (M), R.R.Dist. (60 seats)
15. Vijaya College of Pharmacy; Munuganur, Hayat Nagar, R.R.Dist. (60 seats)

1. MNR College of Pharmacy; Fasalwadi(V), Narsapur road, Sangareddy, Medak District. (60 seats)
2. Sri Krupa Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Velkatta(V), Kondapak(M), Siddpet Road, Medak District. (60 seats)

1. Madhira Institue of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Madhiranagar, Chilkur, Nalgonda District. (60 seats)
2. Nalanda College of Pharmacy; Cherlapally, Nalgonda District. (60 seats)
3. Nizam Institute of Pharmacy; Deshmukhi(V), Pochampally(M), Near Ramoji Film City, Nalgonda Dist. (60 seats)
4. Vathsalya College of Pharmacy;Bhongir, Nalgonda District. (60 seats)
5. Vignan Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Vignan Hills, Near Ramoji Film City, Nalgonda Dist.
6. Vikas College of Pharmacy; Rayanigudem(V), Near NH-9, Surya pet, Nalgonda Dist. (60 seats)

1. University College of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Kakatiya University, Warangal Dist. (50 seats)
2. Aurobindo College of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Gangadevapally, geesukonda, Narsampet Road, Warangal District. (60 seats)
3. Balaji Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Lankeypally(V), Maheswaram(PO), Narsampet(M), Warangal Dist. (60 seats)
4. Blue Birds College of Pharmacy; Near Chintagutta Camp, Bheemavaram(V), Hanmakonda, Warangal Dist. (45 seats)
5. Care College of Pharmacy; Oglapur(V), Atmakur(M), Warangal Dist. (60 seats)
6. Janagaon Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Yeshwanthpur(V), Janagoan(M), Warangal Dist. (60 seats)
7. Jayamukhi College of Pharmacy; Moqudumpur(V), Narsampet(PO), Chinarao pet(M), Warangal Dist. (60 seats)
8. 7. Netaji Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Sommidi, Hanmakonda, Warangal Dist. (60 seats)
9. 8. SR College of Pharmacy; Anantha Nagar(V), Hasanparthy(M), Warangal Dist. (60 seats)
10. Sri Shivani College of Pharmacy; Mulugu road, Warangal Dist. (60 seats)
11. St. John's College of Pharmacy; Yellapur(V), Hasanparthy(M), Warangal Dist. (60 seats)
12. St. Peters Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Vidyanagar, Hanmakonda, Warangal Dist. (60 seats)
13. Thalla Padmavathi College of Pharmacy; Kareemabad, Warangal Dist. (60 seats)
14. Vaagdevi College of Pharmacy; Ramnagar, Hanmakonda, Warangal Dist. (60 seats)
15. Vikas College of Pharmacy; Vikas Nagar, Shameerpet(V), Janagaon(M), Warangal Dist. (60 seats)

1. SMT.Sarojini Ramulamma College of Pharmacy; Seshadri nagar, Mahaboobnagarnagar Dist (60 seats).
2. Kottam Institute of Pharmacy; Erravaly X Roads, Itikyal(M), Mahaboobnagar Dist (60 seats).

1. SRR College of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Valbhapur(V), Elkathurthy(M), Karimnagar Dist. (60 seats).
2. Trinity College of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Pragathi nagar, Peddapalli, Karimnagar Dist (60 seats).
3. Vaageshwari College of Pharmacy; Ramakrishnan colony, Thimmapur(M), Karimnagar dist (60 seats).

1. Brown's College of Pharmacy; Ammapelam, Near Thanikella, Konijerla(M), Khammam Dist.
2. KLR College of Pharmacy; Contractor Colony, Palavancha, Khammam Dist.

1. Andhra University College of Pharmacy; Waltair, Vishakapatnam Dist. (40 seats)
2. GITAM College of Pharmacy; Ghandi Nagar Campus, Rushikonda, Vishakapatnam Dist.
3. Vignan Institute of Pharmacy; Jaggarajupet, Gajuwaka, Beside VSEZ.
4. Yalamachily Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Yalamarty, Tharluwada, Vishakapatnam.

1. K.V.S.R. Siddartha College of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Pinnamaneni Poly clinic Road, Siddartha Nagar, Vijayawada.
2. Sri Siddartha Pharmacy College; Ammavari Thota, Nuzividu, Krishna District.
3. Vikas College of Pharmacy; Puturala Road, Vissannapet, Krishna district.

1. A.M.Reddy Memorial College of Pharmacy; AMR Nagar, Petlutivaripalem, Narsaraopet(M), Guntur Dist.
2. ASN College of Pharmacy; Burripalem Road, Nelapadu, Tenali, Guntur dist.
3. Bapatla College of Pharmacy; Bapatla, Guntur Dist.
4. Chalapthi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Chalapathi Nagar, LAM, Guntur.
5. Don Bosco PG College; 5th Mile, Pulladigunta, Komepadu(V), Vatticheru, Guntur Dist. (45 seats)
6. Hindu College of Pharmacy; Koritepadu(V), Amaravathi, Guntur Dist.
7. Nagarjuna Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Opp.JKC College Road, Guntur.
8. Nirmala College of Pharmacy; Atmakur, Mangalagiri, Guntur Dist.
9. Siddartha College of Pharmacy; Siddartha Nagar, Kantepudi(V), Sattenapalli(M), Guntur Dist.
10. Southern Institute of Medical Science College of Pharmacy; Mangaladas Nagar, Guntur.
11. Vagdevi College of Pharmacy; Gurajala, Guntur Dist.
12. Vignan College of Pharmacy; Vadalamudi, Guntur.
13. Victoria College of Pharmacy; Ankireddy Palem Guntur Dist.
14. Viswa Bharathi College of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Pericherla, NTR Road, Guntur Dist.

1. Aditya Institute of Pharmaceutical Science & Research; ADB road, Surapalem, Peddapuram, East Godavari District.
2. GIET School of Pharmacy; NH-5, Chaitanya Nagar, Rajahmundry, E.G.Dist.
3. Sri Aditya Institute of Pharmaceutical Science & Research; ADB road, Surapalem, Peddapuram, East Godavari District.
4. St.Mary's College of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Surampalem, ADB Road, Peddapuram, EG.Dist.

1. AKRG College of Pharmacy; Nallajerla, Near Tadepallygudem, W.G.Dist.
2. Nova College of Pharmacy; Vengavaram, Jangareddy Gudem(M), W.G.Dist.
3. Sri Vaasavi Institute of Pharmaceutical Science; Tadepallygudem, W.G.Dist.
4. Sri Vishnu College of Pharmacy; Vishnupur, Bhimavaram, W.G.Dist.

1. Avanthi College of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Cherukupalli, Bhogapuram, Vijayanagaram Dist.
2. Maharaja College of Pharmacy; Phoolbagh, Vijayanagaram Dist.

1. Sri Venkateshwara College of Pharmacy; Etcherla, Srikakulam Dist.

1. Maleneni Lakshmaiah College of Pharmacy; Kanumella(V), Singarayakonda, Prakasham District.
2. Samuel Goerge Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Markapuram, Prakasham Dist.
3. QIS College of Pharmacy; Vengamukkapalem, Prakasham Dist.

1. SAFA College of Pharmacy; B.Tendrapadu, Nandyal Road, Kurnool Dist. (45 seats)

1. Sri Padmavathi Mahila Viswa Vidyalayam College of Pharmacy; Tirupathi. (40 seats)
2. Sri Krishna Chaitanya College of Pharmacy; Gangannagaripally(V), Nimmanapalli, Road, Basinikonda Panchayat, Madanapalle, Chittoor Dist.
3. Sree Vidyaniketan College of Pharmacy; Sree Sainath Nagar, A.Rangampet, Chandragiri(M), Chittoor Dist.
4. Sri Lakshmi Narasimha College of Pharmacy; Gollamadugu, Palluru(Po), Gudipala(M), Chittoor Dist.
5. Sri Padmavathi School of Pharmacy; Vaishanvi Nagar, Tiruchanoor(Po), Tirupathi.

1. Balaji College of Pharmacy; Balaji Educational Society, Near RTC Bus Stand, Khaja Nagar, Ananthapur Dist.
2. Raghavendra Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research; Saigram, Krishna Reddy Palli Cross, Chiyyedu(Po), Ananthapur Dist.

1. Jagan's College of Pharmacy; Jangala Kandriga, Nellore Dist.
2. Rao's College of Pharmacy; Veranna Kanpur Bit - I, Venkatachalam(M), Nellore DIst.
3. Vagdevi College of Pharmacy & Research Centre; Brahmadevam(V), Nellore Dist.

1. Annamacharya College of Pharmacy; New Bownepally, Rajampet Town, Cuddapah Dist.
2. Nirmala College of Pharmacy; Putlampalli(V), Madras Road, Near Pratap Public school, Buddayapalli(P), Cuddapah Dist.
3. Sri P.Ramireddy Memorial College of Pharmacy; Prakruthi Nagar, Utukur, Cuddapah Dist.